äâ¸â€¹ã¨â½â½ Islamic Art and Architecture the System of Geometric Design

Geometric pattern characteristic of Muslim art

Islamic geometric patterns are one of the major forms of Islamic ornamentation, which tends to avoid using figurative images, as it is forbidden to create a representation of an important Islamic figure co-ordinate to many holy scriptures.

The geometric designs in Islamic fine art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and circles, which may exist overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques (with which they are often combined), to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide diversity of tessellations. These may constitute the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or may retreat into the groundwork effectually other motifs. The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from unproblematic stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through a variety of 6- to 13-point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include as well 14- and sixteen-point stars in the sixteenth century.

Geometric patterns occur in a variety of forms in Islamic fine art and architecture. These include kilim carpets, Persian girih and Moroccan zellij tilework, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced stone screens, ceramics, leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metalwork.

Interest in Islamic geometric patterns is increasing in the West, both among craftsmen and artists like M. C. Escher in the twentieth century, and amongst mathematicians and physicists such as Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt.

Background [edit]

Islamic ornamentation [edit]

Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avoid condign objects of worship.^{[i] [2]} This aniconism in Islamic culture acquired artists to explore non-figural art, and created a general artful shift toward mathematically-based ornament.^[3] The Islamic geometric patterns derived from simpler designs used in earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, and Sasanian. They are one of three forms of Islamic ornament, the others existence the arabesque based on curving and branching institute forms, and Islamic calligraphy; all three are ofttimes used together.^{[four] [v]}

Purpose [edit]

Authors such as Keith Critchlow^[a] argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality, rather than being mere ornament, as writers interested only in design sometimes imply.^{[6] [7]} In Islamic culture, the patterns are believed to be the span to the spiritual realm, the instrument to purify the mind and the soul.^[8] David Wade^[b] states that "Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the fine art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation."^[ix] Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure, turning mosques "into lightness and pattern", while "the busy pages of a Qur'an tin can become windows onto the infinite."^[9] Against this, Doris Behrens-Abouseif^[c] states in her book Beauty in Standard arabic Culture that a "major difference" between the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the cute are separated in Arabic civilization. She argues that beauty, whether in poesy or in the visual arts, was enjoyed "for its own sake, without commitment to religious or moral criteria".^[ten]

• Styles of Islamic geometric decoration

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  A multifariousness of vernacular decorative Islamic styles in Morocco: girih-similar wooden panels, zellij tilework, stucco calligraphy, and floral door panels

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  An entrance in the Ottoman Greenish Mosque, Bursa, Turkey (1424), with girih 10-betoken stars and pentagons

Pattern germination [edit]

The Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine, Mahan, Iran, 1431. The blue girih-tiled dome contains stars with, from the peak, 5, vii, 9, 12, 11, 9 and ten points in turn. eleven-point stars are rare in Islamic fine art.^[11]

Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles, typically repeated, overlapped and interlaced to form intricate and complex patterns.^[four] A recurring motif is the 8-pointed star, oftentimes seen in Islamic tilework; it is fabricated of two squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. The fourth basic shape is the polygon, including pentagons and octagons. All of these can be combined and reworked to class complicated patterns with a variety of symmetries including reflections and rotations. Such patterns can be seen as mathematical tessellations, which can extend indefinitely and thus advise infinity.^{[4] [12]} They are synthetic on grids that require simply ruler and compass to draw.^[thirteen] Creative person and educator Roman Verostko argues that such constructions are in upshot algorithms, making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of modern algorithmic art.^[fourteen]

The circle symbolizes unity and variety in nature, and many Islamic patterns are fatigued starting with a circle.^[15] For instance, the decoration of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circle, divided into six past 6 circles fatigued around information technology, all touching at its heart and each touching its two neighbours' centres to class a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded past six smaller irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern. This forms the bones design which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque. That design, notwithstanding, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying blueprint.^{[xv] [16]} A like design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center.^[17]

One of the early on Western students of Islamic patterns, Ernest Hanbury Hankin, defined a "geometrical arabesque" as a pattern formed "with the help of structure lines consisting of polygons in contact."^[5] He observed that many different combinations of polygons can be used equally long as the residual spaces betwixt the polygons are reasonably symmetrical. For example, a filigree of octagons in contact has squares (of the same side every bit the octagons) as the remainder spaces. Every octagon is the footing for an 8-point star, equally seen at Akbar's tomb, Sikandra (1605–1613). Hankin considered the "skill of the Arabian artists in discovering suitable combinations of polygons .. almost astounding."^[v] He further records that if a star occurs in a corner, exactly ane quarter of it should exist shown; if forth an edge, exactly one half of it.^[5]

The Topkapı Coil, made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late-15th century or start of the 16th century, contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tilings and muqarnas quarter or semidomes.^{[xviii] [19] [20]}

The mathematical backdrop of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain take been extensively studied. Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to accept plant near or all of the 17 wallpaper groups there.^{[21] [22]} Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th centuries makes apply of but five wallpaper groups, mainly p4mm and c2mm, with p6mm and p2mm occasionally and p4gm rarely; information technology is claimed that the "Hasba" (measure out) method of construction, which starts with n-fold rosettes, can however generate all 17 groups.^[23]

• Methods of structure

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  Construction of girih blueprint in Darb-e Imam spandrel (yellow line). Construction decagons blue, bowties cerise. The strapwork cuts across the construction tessellation.

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  Decoration in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra, showing correct handling of sides and corners. A quarter of each vi-betoken star is shown in each corner; one-half stars forth the sides.

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  Architectural drawing for brick vaulting, Islamic republic of iran, probably Tehran, 1800–lxx

Evolution [edit]

Early on stage [edit]

The earliest geometrical forms in Islamic art were occasional isolated geometric shapes such every bit 8-pointed stars and lozenges containing squares. These appointment from 836 in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, and since then take spread all across the Islamic world.^[24]

Eye stage [edit]

The next evolution, marking the heart stage of Islamic geometric blueprint usage, was of vi- and 8-point stars, which appear in 879 at the Ibn Tulun Mosque, Cairo, and then became widespread.^[24]

A wider diversity of patterns were used from the 11th century. Abstruse 6- and 8-point shapes appear in the Belfry of Kharaqan at Qazvin, Persia in 1067, and the Al-Juyushi Mosque, Egypt in 1085, once more becoming widespread from there, though vi-point patterns are rare in Turkey.^[24]

In 1086, 7- and 10-point girih patterns (with heptagons, 5- and 6-pointed stars, triangles and irregular hexagons) appear in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. x-betoken girih became widespread in the Islamic globe, except in the Spanish Al-Andalus.^[24] Shortly afterwards, sweeping 9-, 11-, and xiii-signal girih patterns were used in the Barsian Mosque, also in Persia, in 1098; these, like 7-betoken geometrical patterns, are rarely used outside Persia and cardinal Asia.^[24]

Finally, marking the end of the center stage, 8- and 12-point girih rosette patterns appear in the Alâeddin Mosque at Konya, Turkey in 1220, and in the Abbasid palace in Baghdad in 1230, going on to become widespread across the Islamic globe.^[24]

Late stage [edit]

The beginning of the belatedly stage is marked by the use of uncomplicated 16-signal patterns at the Hasan Sadaqah mausoleum in Cairo in 1321, and in the Alhambra in Spain in 1338–1390. These patterns are rarely plant outside these ii regions. More elaborate combined xvi-point geometrical patterns are establish in the Sultan Hassan complex in Cairo in 1363, simply rarely elsewhere. Finally, 14-point patterns announced in the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri in Bharat in 1571–1596, but in few other places.^{[24] [d]}

Artforms [edit]

Several artforms in different parts of the Islamic world brand apply of geometric patterns. These include ceramics,^[26] girih strapwork,^[27] jali pierced stone screens,^[28] kilim rugs,^[29] leather,^[thirty] metalwork,^[31] muqarnas vaulting,^[32] shakaba stained glass,^[33] woodwork,^[27] and zellij tiling.^[34]

Ceramics [edit]

Ceramics lend themselves to round motifs, whether radial or tangential. Bowls or plates can be decorated inside or out with radial stripes; these may be partly figurative, representing stylised leaves or blossom petals, while circular bands tin can run around a bowl or jug. Patterns of these types were employed on Islamic ceramics from the Ayyubid period, 13th century. Radially symmetric flowers with, say, 6 petals lend themselves to increasingly stylised geometric designs which can combine geometric simplicity with recognisably naturalistic motifs, brightly coloured glazes, and a radial limerick that ideally suits round crockery. Potters often chose patterns suited to the shape of the vessel they were making.^[26] Thus an unglazed earthenware water flask^[e] from Aleppo in the shape of a vertical circumvolve (with handles and neck above) is decorated with a ring of moulded braiding around an Arabic inscription with a small eight-petalled blossom at the centre.^[35]

Girih tilings and woodwork [edit]

Girih are elaborate interlacing patterns formed of five standardized shapes. The manner is used in Persian Islamic architecture and besides in decorative woodwork.^[27] Girih designs are traditionally made in unlike media including cut brickwork, stucco, and mosaic faience tilework. In woodwork, especially in the Safavid menses, it could be practical either as lattice frames, left plain or inset with panels such as of coloured glass; or equally mosaic panels used to decorate walls and ceilings, whether sacred or secular. In architecture, girih forms decorative interlaced strapwork surfaces from the 15th century to the 20th century. Most designs are based on a partially hidden geometric grid which provides a regular array of points; this is made into a pattern using 2-, iii-, 4-, and half dozen-fold rotational symmetries which tin can fill the airplane. The visible pattern superimposed on the grid is also geometric, with half dozen-, 8-, 10- and 12-pointed stars and a variety of convex polygons, joined by straps which typically seem to weave over and under each other.^{[27] [36]} The visible pattern does non coincide with the underlying construction lines of the tiling.^[27] The visible patterns and the underlying tiling represent a bridge linking the invisible to the visible, analogous to the "epistemological quest" in Islamic culture, the search for the nature of cognition.^[37]

Jali [edit]

Mosque of Ibn Tulun: window with girih-style 10-indicate stars (at rear), with floral roundels in octagons forming a frieze at front

Primary article: Jali

Jali are pierced stone screens with regularly repeating patterns. They are characteristic of Indo-Islamic compages, for example in the Mughal dynasty buildings at Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal. The geometric designs combine polygons such as octagons and pentagons with other shapes such equally 5- and viii-pointed stars. The patterns emphasized symmetries and suggested infinity by repetition. Jali functioned as windows or room dividers, providing privacy just assuasive in air and light.^[28] Jali forms a prominent chemical element of the architecture of Republic of india.^[38] The apply of perforated walls has declined with modern building standards and the need for security. Modern, simplified jali walls, for example made with pre-moulded clay or cement blocks, accept been popularised by the architect Laurie Baker.^[39] Pierced windows in girih style are sometimes found elsewhere in the Islamic earth, such as in windows of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo.^[40]

Kilim [edit]

Somewhat geometric motifs such as the Wolf's Oral fissure (Kurt Aǧzi), to protect the flocks against wolves, are ofttimes woven into tribal kilims.

A kilim is an Islamic^[29] flatwoven carpet (without a pile), whether for household utilize or a prayer mat. The blueprint is made by winding the weft threads back over the warp threads when a colour boundary is reached. This technique leaves a gap or vertical slit, so kilims are sometimes called slit-woven textiles. Kilims are frequently decorated with geometric patterns with 2- or 4-fold mirror or rotational symmetries. Because weaving uses vertical and horizontal threads, curves are difficult to generate, and patterns are accordingly formed mainly with straight edges.^{[16] [41]} Kilim patterns are often feature of specific regions.^[42] Kilim motifs are often symbolic as well as decorative. For example, the wolf's oral fissure or wolf's foot motif (Turkish: Kurt Aǧzi, Kurt İzi) expresses the tribal weavers' desires for protection of their families' flocks from wolves.^[43]

Leather [edit]

Islamic leather is oftentimes embossed with patterns similar to those already described. Leather book covers, starting with the Quran where figurative artwork was excluded, were decorated with a combination of kufic script, medallions and geometric patterns, typically bordered by geometric braiding.^[30]

Metalwork [edit]

Metal artefacts share the aforementioned geometric designs that are used in other forms of Islamic fine art. However, in the view of Hamilton Gibb, the emphasis differs: geometric patterns tend to be used for borders, and if they are in the main decorative area they are about oftentimes used in combination with other motifs such as floral designs, arabesques, beast motifs, or calligraphic script. Geometric designs in Islamic metalwork can form a grid decorated with these other motifs, or they can form the background design.^[31]

Fifty-fifty where metal objects such as bowls and dishes do not seem to accept geometric decoration, even so the designs, such as arabesques, are often set in octagonal compartments or bundled in concentric bands around the object. Both closed designs (which do not repeat) and open or repetitive patterns are used. Patterns such as interlaced six-pointed stars were especially popular from the twelfth century. Eva Baer^[f] notes that while this design was essentially unproblematic, it was elaborated by metalworkers into intricate patterns interlaced with arabesques, sometimes organised around farther basic Islamic patterns, such as the hexagonal design of half-dozen overlapping circles.^[45]

Muqarnas [edit]

Muqarnas are elaborately carved ceilings to semi-domes, frequently used in mosques. They are typically fabricated of stucco (and thus do non have a structural function), but can besides be of wood, brick, and rock. They are characteristic of Islamic compages of the Middle Ages from Spain and Kingdom of morocco in the due west to Persia in the east. Architecturally they form multiple tiers of squinches, diminishing in size as they ascent. They are often elaborately decorated.^[32]

Stained glass [edit]

Geometrically patterned stained drinking glass is used in a multifariousness of settings in Islamic architecture. It is found in the surviving summertime residence of the Palace of Shaki Khans, Azerbaijan, synthetic in 1797. Patterns in the "shabaka" windows include half dozen-, eight-, and 12-bespeak stars. These wood-framed decorative windows are distinctive features of the palace's architecture. Shabaka are nevertheless constructed the traditional way in Sheki in the 21st century.^{[33] [46]} Traditions of stained glass set in wooden frames (not atomic number 82 equally in Europe) survive in workshops in Iran likewise as Azerbaijan.^[47] Glazed windows set in stucco arranged in girih-like patterns are found both in Turkey and the Arab lands; a late instance, without the traditional balance of design elements, was fabricated in Tunisia for the International Colonial Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1883.^[48] The erstwhile city of Sana'a in Yemen has stained glass windows in its tall buildings.^[49]

Zellij [edit]

Zellij (Standard arabic: الزَّلِيْج) is geometric tilework with glazed terracotta tiles set into plaster, forming colourful mosaic patterns including regular and semiregular tessellations. The tradition is characteristic of Morocco, just is also found in Moorish Kingdom of spain. Zellij is used to decorate mosques, public buildings and wealthy private houses.^[34]

Illustrations [edit]

• Media used for Islamic geometric patterns

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  Safavid bowl with radial and circular motifs, Persia, 17th century

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  Lustre tiles from Islamic republic of iran, probably Kashan, 1262, in the shapes of the Sufi symbols for the divine breath

• 

• 

  Woven wool Kilim from Turkey

• 

  Leather prayer book cover, Persia, 16th century

• 

Exterior Islamic art [edit]

In Western culture [edit]

Information technology is sometimes supposed in Western society that mistakes in repetitive Islamic patterns such as those on carpets were intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believed just Allah tin produce perfection, but this theory is denied.^{[51] [52] [53]}

Major Western collections hold many objects of widely varying materials with Islamic geometric patterns. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London holds at least 283 such objects, of materials including wallpaper, carved woods, inlaid wood, tin- or lead-glazed earthenware, contumely, stucco, glass, woven silk, ivory, and pen or pencil drawings.^[54] The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has amid other relevant holdings 124 mediaeval (yard–1400 A.D.) objects bearing Islamic geometric patterns,^[55] including a pair of Egyptian minbar (pulpit) doors almost 2 1000. high in rosewood and mulberry inlaid with ivory and ebony;^[56] and an entire mihrab (prayer niche) from Isfahan, decorated with polychrome mosaic, and weighing over two,000 kg.^[57]

Wooden box inlaid with ivory with zellij-like geometrical motifs. Italy (Florence or Venice) 15th century.

Islamic decoration and adroitness had a significant influence on Western art when Venetian merchants brought goods of many types dorsum to Italy from the 14th century onwards.^[58]

The Dutch artist Thousand. C. Escher was inspired by the Alhambra'south intricate decorative designs to study the mathematics of tessellation, transforming his way and influencing the rest of his artistic career.^{[59] [lx]} In his ain words it was "the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped."^[61]

Influence on the sciences [edit]

Cultural organisations such equally the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and the Institute for Advanced Study run events on geometric patterns and related aspects of Islamic art.^[62] In 2013 the Istanbul Center of Pattern and the Ensar Foundation ran what they claimed was the get-go ever symposium of Islamic Arts and Geometric Patterns, in Istanbul. The panel included the experts on Islamic geometric pattern Carol Bier,^[thousand] Jay Bonner,^{[h] [65]} Eric Broug,^[i] Hacali Necefoğlu^[j] and Reza Sarhangi.^{[k] [69]} In Britain, The Prince's School of Traditional Arts runs a range of courses in Islamic art including geometry, calligraphy, and arabesque (vegetal forms), tile-making, and plaster carving.^[70]

Tomb towers of two Seljuk princes at Kharaghan, Qazvin province, Iran, covered with many different brick patterns like those that inspired Ahmad Rafsanjani to create auxetic materials

Reckoner graphics and figurer-aided manufacturing go far possible to pattern and produce Islamic geometric patterns effectively and economically. Craig South. Kaplan explains and illustrates in his Ph.D. thesis how Islamic star patterns can be generated algorithmically.^[71]

Ii physicists, Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt, attracted controversy in 2007 by challenge^[72] that girih designs such equally that used on the Darb-e Imam shrine^[l] in Isfahan were able to create quasi-periodic tilings resembling those discovered by Roger Penrose in 1973. They showed that rather than the traditional ruler and compass structure, it was possible to create girih designs using a prepare of five "girih tiles", all equilateral polygons, secondarily decorated with lines (for the strapwork).^[73]

In 2016, Ahmad Rafsanjani described the use of Islamic geometric patterns from tomb towers in Iran to create auxetic materials from perforated rubber sheets. These are stable in either a contracted or an expanded state, and can switch between the two, which might be useful for surgical stents or for spacecraft components. When a conventional material is stretched forth i axis, it contracts along other axes (at right angles to the stretch). But auxetic materials expand at right angles to the pull. The internal structure that enables this unusual behaviour is inspired past two of the 70 Islamic patterns that Rafsanjani noted on the tomb towers.^[74]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Critchlow is a professor of compages, and the author of a book on Islamic patterns.
2. ^ Wade is the author of a serial of books on pattern in various artforms.
3. ^ Behrens-Abouseif is a professor of the history of art and architecture at SOAS.
4. ^ 1 such place is the Mustansiriyya Madrasa in Baghdad, as illustrated by Broug.^[25]
5. ^ Leaving the flask porous immune evaporation, keeping the water cool.^[35]
6. ^ Baer is Emeritus Professor of Islamic Studies at Tel Aviv Academy.^[44]
7. ^ Bier is a historian of Islamic art who studies design.^[63]
8. ^ Bonner is an architect specialising in Islamic ornament.^[64]
9. ^ Broug writes books and runs courses on Islamic geometric design.^[66]
10. ^ Necefoğlu is a professor of chemical science at Kafkas University interested in blueprint and crystallography.^[67]
11. ^ Sarhangi is the founder of The Bridges Organization. He studies the mathematics of Western farsi compages and mosaic blueprint.^[68]
12. ^ Illustrated above.

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External links [edit]

• Museum with no Frontiers: Geometric Ornamentation
• Victoria and Albert Museum: Teachers' resource: Maths and Islamic art & design

ballardtheaticand.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns

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